The Indigeneity Clause and the Mismanagement of Ethnic Diversity in Nigeria

Gbeke Adenuga

doi:10.35912/dpd.v1i2.1209

The Indigeneity Clause and the Mismanagement of Ethnic Diversity in Nigeria

https://doi.org/10.35912/dpd.v1i2.1209

Published: Oct 4, 2022

Abstract:

Purpose: Nigeria is characterized by ethnic diversity and the quest to achieve ‘unity in diversity’ led to its adoption of federalism as the basic structure and principle of governance. Over six decades after independence, the country remains sharply divided along ethnic lines, and national unity remains a mirage. While there is a burgeoning body of research on the causes, manifestations, and consequences of ethnic diversity mismanagement in Nigeria, few attempts have been made to analytically study the effects of constitutional provisions on the phenomenon. The study, thus, examined the effects of the indigeneity clause in the Nigerian constitution on ethnic diversity management in the country.

Research methodology: The study is based on a review of secondary data on Nigeria’s constitutional provisions and institutional processes.

Results: It identified that the indigeneity clause in the country’s constitutions has created different notions of citizenship and further exacerbated differences between ethnic groups in the country. The clause established two classes of Nigerians, indigenes, and settlers, and the ensuing ‘us against them’ culture lies at the root of ethnic tensions witnessed in the country.

Limitations: Other issues, apart from the indigeneity clause, may also lead to the mismanagement of ethnic diversity in the country.

Contribution: The findings and recommendations of the study provide a veritable template to help ensure good ethnic diversity management in Nigeria and other multi-ethnic states.

Keywords:

1. citizenship

2. ethnicity

3. indigenes

4. indigeneity clause

5. settlers

Authors:

Gbeke Adenuga

Department of Political Science, Federal University Oye Ekiti, Nigeria

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Adenuga, G. (2022). The Indigeneity Clause and the Mismanagement of Ethnic Diversity in Nigeria. Dynamics of Politics and Democracy, 1(2), 97–107. https://doi.org/10.35912/dpd.v1i2.1209

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Vol. 1 No. 2 (2022): February

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References

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Adedeji, A. O., & Ezeabasili, I. E. (2018). Restructuring and clamour for true federalism in Nigeria: A comparative analysis. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 5(2), 160-168.

Adegbami, A., & Uche, C. I. (2015). Ethnicity and ethnic politics: An impediment to political development in Nigeria. Public Administration Research, 4(1), 59-67.

Adenuga, G. A. (2018). The colonial experience and the imperative of real independence for Africa. In S. O. Oloruntoba, & V. Gumede (Eds.). State and development in post-independent Africa, pp. 269-278. Texas: Pan-African University Press.

Afolabi, O. (2016). Migration and citizenship question in Nigeria: a study of the Berom and Hausa/Fulani conflict in Jos. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations. 1(2), 8-15.

Agbu, A. D., Zhema, S., & Useini, B. (2019). Jukun-Tiv relations in the Benue valley region: The 2019 scuffles in Southern Taraba State, Nigeria. International Journal of African Society, Cultures and Traditions, 8(1), 1-20.

Ahmadi, D. (2018). Is diversity our strength? An analysis of the facts and fancies of diversity in Toronto. City, Culture and Society, 13, 64-72.

Ajor, J. O., & Odey, J. S. (2018). History: The epicentre of national integration. Lwati: A Journal of Contemporary Research, 15(4), 71-85.

Akanji, O.O. (2021). Nigeria between 1914 and 1960: Political-constitutional changes and crises in an era of colonialism. In: R. Ajayi, & J. Y. Fashagba (Eds.) Nigerian politics. Advances in African economic, social and political development. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50509-7_3

Ali, M. A., & Ahmed, F. A. (2019). Nigerian federalism problems in prospects. Journal of Economic Info, 6(2), 12-18.

Alubo, O. (2009). Citizenship and identity politics in Nigeria. CLEEN Conference Proceedings, 1-18

Angerbrandt, H. (2018). Deadly elections: post-election violence in Nigeria. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 56(1), 143-167.

Anthony, D. (2018). Decolonization, race, and region in Nigeria: Northernization revisited. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 51(1), 37-62.

Asiwaju, A.I (1984). Artificial boundaries. An Inaugural Lecture Delivered at the University of Lagos. Lagos: Lagos University Press.

Babalola, D. (2015). The efficacy of federalism in a multi-ethnic state: The Nigerian experience. The Journal of Pan African Studies, 8(2), 74-91.

Babalola, D., & Okafor, C. (2019). Resource abundance and the dilemma of fiscal federalism in Nigeria. Journal of African Political Economy and Development, 4(1), 3-21.

Balzer, M. M. (2021). The Tenacity of ethnicity: A Siberian saga in global perspective. Princeton University Press.

Bamidele, S. (2018). The settler has nowhere to feed and the Indigene has all the pastures: Re (visiting) the indigeneity-settler crisis in Nigeria. Journal of African Political Economy and Development, 3(1), 49-69.

Banks, J. A., Banks, C. A. M., Cortes, C., Hahn, C. L., Merryfield, M. M., Moodley, K. A., Murphy- Shigematsu, S., Osler, A., Park, C., & Parker, W. C. (2005). Democracy and diversity: principles and concepts for educating citizens in a global age. Seattle: University of Washington.

Bazzi, S., Gaduh, A., Rothenberg, A. D., & Wong, M. (2019). Unity in diversity? How intergroup contact can foster nation building. American Economic Review, 109(11), 3978-4025.

Campbell, J., & Page, M. T. (2018). Nigeria: What everyone needs to know. Oxford University Press.

Çanc?, H., & Odukoya, O. A. (2016). Ethnic and religious crises in Nigeria: A specific analysis upon identities (1999–2013). African Journal on Conflict Resolution, 16(1), 87-110.

Carducci, B. J. (2020). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The Wiley encyclopedia of personality and individual differences: Models and theories, 269-273.

Chidozie, F., & Orji, M. C. (2022). Cultural pluralism and democratic survival in Nigeria. African Identities, 1-14.

Ciboh, R. (2014). Newspaper inquest into Tiv-Jukun conflict 2001: An analysis of ethnic inequality and domination in contemporary Nigeria. Studies in Media and Communication, 2(1), 115-124.

Edewor, P. A., Aluko, Y. A., & Folarin, S. F. (2014). Managing ethnic and cultural diversity for national integration in Nigeria. Developing Country Studies, 4(6), 70-76.

Edosa, E. (2014). National integration, citizenship, political participation and democratic stability in Nigeria. International Journal of Arts and Humanities, 3(3), 61-82.

Egbe, B. O., & Okoi, I. O. (2018). Pre-Colonial Inter-Group Boundary Relations in Africa: The Nigerian Experience. Lwati: A Journal of Contemporary Research, 15(1), 64-75.

Egwim, A. I. (2020). The Dynamics of Federalism in Nigeria. Springer International Publishing.

Ejiofor, P. F. (2021). The Fear of ethnic domination: Explaining the persistence of natural resource conflicts in Nigeria. Ethnopolitics, 1-21.

Ekeh, P. (1975). Colonialism and the two publics in Africa: a theoretical statement. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 17(1), 91-112

Etefa, T. (2019). Ethnicity as a Tool: The Root Causes of Ethnic Conflict in Africa—A Critical Introduction. In: The Origins of Ethnic Conflict in Africa. African Histories and Modernities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10540-2_1

Ezzati, R. T., & M. B. Erdal (2018). Do we have to agree? Accommodating unity in diversity in post-terror Norway. Ethnicities, 18(3), 363-384.

Faluyi, O., & Oni, E. (2018). Federalism, military legacies and the restructuring debate in contemporary Nigeria. African Journal of Governance and Development, 7(2), 5-23.

Fourchard, L. (2021). Undocumented citizens and the making of ID documents in Nigeria: An ethnography of the politics of suspicion in Jos. African Affairs, 120(481), 511-541.

Fourchard, L., & Bardelli, N. (2021). Bureaucracy and the politics of identification in Nigeria: Issuing certificates of indigene and investigating citizens' ancestral origins. In S. A Dalberto & R. Benegas (Eds.). Identification and Citizenship in Africa (pp. 185-202). Routledge.

Gberevbie, D. E., & Oni, S. (2021). Postcolonial Nigeria: Power and politics in the first republic, 1960–1966. In Nigerian Politics (pp. 55-75). Springer, Cham.

Green, K. A., Lopez, M., Wysocki, A., & Kepner, K. (2012). Diversity in the workplace: Benefits, challenges, and the required managerial tools. HRO 22, 1-3.

Gutierrez, N. (2020). Ethnic revivals within nation-states? The theories of E. Gellner and AD Smith revisited. In H. R. Wicker (Ed.). Rethinking Nationalism and Ethnicity: The struggle for meaning and order in Europe (pp. 163-173). Routledge.

Idike, A., Ukeje, I. O., Iwuala, H. O., Onele, J. C., Ekwunife, R. A., Nwachukwu, K., & Udu, O. (2019). The practice of inclusive representation in Nigeria bureaucracy: The federal character principle experience. Cogent Social Sciences, 5(1), 1601545.

Iguh, N. (2016). Deportation of Igbos in Nigeria: The constitutional implications. Pinnacle Sociology & Anthropology, 2(3), 1064-1070.

Jinadu, A. L. (2002). Ethnic conflict and federalism in Nigeria. Discussion Papers on Development Policy, No. 49. Bonn: ZEF –Center for Development Research.

Kalu, K., & Falola, T. (Eds.). (2018). Exploitation and misrule in colonial and Postcolonial Africa. Springer.

Lee, S. (2022). The real promise of federalism: A case study of Arendt’s international thought. European Journal of Political Theory, 21(3), 539-560.

Lenshie, N. E., & Yenda, H. B. (2017). Neither citizen nor settler: Contested identity of Northern Cameroons in Nigeria. Ethnic Studies Review, 39-40(1), 117-134.

Levan, A. C. (2015). Dictators and democracy in African development: The political economy of good governance in Nigeria. The African Studies Series. Cambridge University Press.

Maiangwa, B. (2020). The crisis of belonging and ethnographies of peacebuilding in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Lexington Books.

Majekodunmi, A. (2015). Federalism in Nigeria: The past, current peril and future hopes. Journal of Policy and Development, 9(2), 107-120.

Mang, H. G., & Ehrhardt, D. (2018). The politics of paper: negotiating over and around indigeneship certification in Plateau State, Nigeria. Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue canadienne des études africaines, 52(3), 331-347.

Mbah, P. O., Nwangwu, C., & Ugwu, S. C. (2019). Contentious elections, political exclusion, and challenges of national integration in Nigeria. Cogent Social Sciences, 5(1), 1565615.

Mekoa, I. (2019). How Africa got into a mess: Colonial legacy, underdevelopment, corruption and human rights violations in Africa. Journal of Reviews on Global economics, 8, 43-52.

Navy, S.L. (2020). Theory of Human Motivation—Abraham Maslow. In: Akpan, B., Kennedy, T.J. (eds) Science Education in Theory and Practice. Springer Texts in Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43620-9_2

Nnabuihe, O. E. (2019). Horizontal inequalities and ethno-religious conflicts in Jos metropolis, North-Central Nigeria. Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue canadienne des études africaines, 53(2), 273-294.

Nnabuihe, O. E. (2020). Autochthony and space in communal war: Citizenship, conflicts, and infrastructure provision in Jos, Central Nigeria. African Affairs, 119(474), 141-163.

Nwanegbo, J., Odigbo, J., & Ochanja, N. C. (2014). Citizenship, indigeneship and settler crisis in Nigeria: Understanding the dynamics of Wukari crisis. Journal of Research in Peace, Gender and Development, 4(1), 8-14.

Odisu, T. A. (2015). Federalism in Nigeria: A critique. Political Sciences and Public Affairs. 3(3). Doi: 10.4172/2332-0761.1000185.

Odubajo, A. (2011). An exploration of contending issues in Nigeria’s federal practice. Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social Sciences, 3(1), 1-33.

Ogunyemi, A. O. (2020). Between nation-building and contestation for power: The place of party politics in Nigeria, 1923-2019. Polish Political Science Yearbook, 49(4), 51-71.

Ojukwu, C. C., & Onifade, C. A. (2010). Social capital, indigeneity and identity politics: The Jos crisis in perspective. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations, 4(5), 173-180.

Okudolo, I. P. T., & Onah, E. I. (2019). Efficient local governments and the stability of federalism in Nigeria. African Renaissance, 16(3), 11-25.

Omotola, J. S. (2021). The troubled trinity: Elections, democracy and development in Nigeria. An Inaugural Lecture, Federal University, Oye Ekiti, Nigeria.

Onyekachukwu, E. P., & Oghogho, O. (2018). Cultural and ethnic pluralism: Implications for national integration in Nigeria. HOFA: African Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 3(1), 74-88.

Oyeneye, I. O., & Adenuga, G. A. (2014). The prospects for peace and security in multi-ethnic and religious societies: A case study of the old Oyo Empire, Nigeria. A paper presented at the1st annual international conference of the International Center for Ethno-Religious Mediation (ICERM). New York. Oct. 1st

Oyeneye, I. O., & Adenuga, G. A. (2015). The role of diplomacy, development and defense in ensuring peace and security in multi-ethnic and religious states: A case study of Nigeria. A paper presented at the 2nd annual international conference of the International Center for Ethno-Religious Mediation (ICERM). New York. Oct. 10th.

Paine, J. (2019). Redistributive political transitions: Minority rule and liberation wars in colonial Africa. The Journal of Politics, 81(2), 505-523.

Ruane, J. & Todd, J. (2016). Ethnicity and religion. In K. Cordell and S. Wolff (Eds.). The Routledge handbook on ethnic conflict, 2nd Ed., pp. 67-77. New York: Routledge.

Sayne, A. (2012). Rethinking Nigeria’s indigene-settler conflicts. United States Institute of Peace’s Special Report 311.

Smooha, S. (2018). How do western democracies cope with the challenge of societal diversity? Nations and Nationalism, 24(2), 215-236.

Taras, R. C. & Ganguly, R. (2015). Understanding ethnic conflict, 4th Edition. New York: Routledge.

The 1999 constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.

The International Crisis Group (2012). Curbing violence in Nigeria (1): The Jos crisis. Crisis Group African Report, No 196.

The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (2013). African government report III: Elections and the management of diversity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ukiwo, U. (2005). The study of ethnicity in Nigeria. Oxford Development Studies, 33(1), 7-23.

Wicker, H. R. (2020). Introduction: Theorizing ethnicity and nationalism. In H. R. Wicker (Ed.). Rethinking Nationalism and Ethnicity: The struggle for meaning and order in Europe (pp. 1-42). Routledge.

Abizadeh, A. (2021). Counter-majoritarian democracy: Persistent minorities, federalism, and the power of numbers. American Political Science Review, 115(3), 742-756.
Adedeji, A. O., & Ezeabasili, I. E. (2018). Restructuring and clamour for true federalism in Nigeria: A comparative analysis. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 5(2), 160-168.
Adegbami, A., & Uche, C. I. (2015). Ethnicity and ethnic politics: An impediment to political development in Nigeria. Public Administration Research, 4(1), 59-67.
Adenuga, G. A. (2018). The colonial experience and the imperative of real independence for Africa. In S. O. Oloruntoba, & V. Gumede (Eds.). State and development in post-independent Africa, pp. 269-278. Texas: Pan-African University Press.
Afolabi, O. (2016). Migration and citizenship question in Nigeria: a study of the Berom and Hausa/Fulani conflict in Jos. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations. 1(2), 8-15.
Agbu, A. D., Zhema, S., & Useini, B. (2019). Jukun-Tiv relations in the Benue valley region: The 2019 scuffles in Southern Taraba State, Nigeria. International Journal of African Society, Cultures and Traditions, 8(1), 1-20.
Ahmadi, D. (2018). Is diversity our strength? An analysis of the facts and fancies of diversity in Toronto. City, Culture and Society, 13, 64-72.
Ajor, J. O., & Odey, J. S. (2018). History: The epicentre of national integration. Lwati: A Journal of Contemporary Research, 15(4), 71-85.
Akanji, O.O. (2021). Nigeria between 1914 and 1960: Political-constitutional changes and crises in an era of colonialism. In: R. Ajayi, & J. Y. Fashagba (Eds.) Nigerian politics. Advances in African economic, social and political development. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50509-7_3
Ali, M. A., & Ahmed, F. A. (2019). Nigerian federalism problems in prospects. Journal of Economic Info, 6(2), 12-18.
Alubo, O. (2009). Citizenship and identity politics in Nigeria. CLEEN Conference Proceedings, 1-18
Angerbrandt, H. (2018). Deadly elections: post-election violence in Nigeria. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 56(1), 143-167.
Anthony, D. (2018). Decolonization, race, and region in Nigeria: Northernization revisited. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, 51(1), 37-62.
Asiwaju, A.I (1984). Artificial boundaries. An Inaugural Lecture Delivered at the University of Lagos. Lagos: Lagos University Press.
Babalola, D. (2015). The efficacy of federalism in a multi-ethnic state: The Nigerian experience. The Journal of Pan African Studies, 8(2), 74-91.
Babalola, D., & Okafor, C. (2019). Resource abundance and the dilemma of fiscal federalism in Nigeria. Journal of African Political Economy and Development, 4(1), 3-21.
Balzer, M. M. (2021). The Tenacity of ethnicity: A Siberian saga in global perspective. Princeton University Press.
Bamidele, S. (2018). The settler has nowhere to feed and the Indigene has all the pastures: Re (visiting) the indigeneity-settler crisis in Nigeria. Journal of African Political Economy and Development, 3(1), 49-69.
Banks, J. A., Banks, C. A. M., Cortes, C., Hahn, C. L., Merryfield, M. M., Moodley, K. A., Murphy- Shigematsu, S., Osler, A., Park, C., & Parker, W. C. (2005). Democracy and diversity: principles and concepts for educating citizens in a global age. Seattle: University of Washington.
Bazzi, S., Gaduh, A., Rothenberg, A. D., & Wong, M. (2019). Unity in diversity? How intergroup contact can foster nation building. American Economic Review, 109(11), 3978-4025.
Campbell, J., & Page, M. T. (2018). Nigeria: What everyone needs to know. Oxford University Press.
Çanc?, H., & Odukoya, O. A. (2016). Ethnic and religious crises in Nigeria: A specific analysis upon identities (1999–2013). African Journal on Conflict Resolution, 16(1), 87-110.
Carducci, B. J. (2020). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The Wiley encyclopedia of personality and individual differences: Models and theories, 269-273.
Chidozie, F., & Orji, M. C. (2022). Cultural pluralism and democratic survival in Nigeria. African Identities, 1-14.
Ciboh, R. (2014). Newspaper inquest into Tiv-Jukun conflict 2001: An analysis of ethnic inequality and domination in contemporary Nigeria. Studies in Media and Communication, 2(1), 115-124.
Edewor, P. A., Aluko, Y. A., & Folarin, S. F. (2014). Managing ethnic and cultural diversity for national integration in Nigeria. Developing Country Studies, 4(6), 70-76.
Edosa, E. (2014). National integration, citizenship, political participation and democratic stability in Nigeria. International Journal of Arts and Humanities, 3(3), 61-82.
Egbe, B. O., & Okoi, I. O. (2018). Pre-Colonial Inter-Group Boundary Relations in Africa: The Nigerian Experience. Lwati: A Journal of Contemporary Research, 15(1), 64-75.
Egwim, A. I. (2020). The Dynamics of Federalism in Nigeria. Springer International Publishing.
Ejiofor, P. F. (2021). The Fear of ethnic domination: Explaining the persistence of natural resource conflicts in Nigeria. Ethnopolitics, 1-21.
Ekeh, P. (1975). Colonialism and the two publics in Africa: a theoretical statement. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 17(1), 91-112
Etefa, T. (2019). Ethnicity as a Tool: The Root Causes of Ethnic Conflict in Africa—A Critical Introduction. In: The Origins of Ethnic Conflict in Africa. African Histories and Modernities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10540-2_1
Ezzati, R. T., & M. B. Erdal (2018). Do we have to agree? Accommodating unity in diversity in post-terror Norway. Ethnicities, 18(3), 363-384.
Faluyi, O., & Oni, E. (2018). Federalism, military legacies and the restructuring debate in contemporary Nigeria. African Journal of Governance and Development, 7(2), 5-23.
Fourchard, L. (2021). Undocumented citizens and the making of ID documents in Nigeria: An ethnography of the politics of suspicion in Jos. African Affairs, 120(481), 511-541.
Fourchard, L., & Bardelli, N. (2021). Bureaucracy and the politics of identification in Nigeria: Issuing certificates of indigene and investigating citizens' ancestral origins. In S. A Dalberto & R. Benegas (Eds.). Identification and Citizenship in Africa (pp. 185-202). Routledge.
Gberevbie, D. E., & Oni, S. (2021). Postcolonial Nigeria: Power and politics in the first republic, 1960–1966. In Nigerian Politics (pp. 55-75). Springer, Cham.
Green, K. A., Lopez, M., Wysocki, A., & Kepner, K. (2012). Diversity in the workplace: Benefits, challenges, and the required managerial tools. HRO 22, 1-3.
Gutierrez, N. (2020). Ethnic revivals within nation-states? The theories of E. Gellner and AD Smith revisited. In H. R. Wicker (Ed.). Rethinking Nationalism and Ethnicity: The struggle for meaning and order in Europe (pp. 163-173). Routledge.
Idike, A., Ukeje, I. O., Iwuala, H. O., Onele, J. C., Ekwunife, R. A., Nwachukwu, K., & Udu, O. (2019). The practice of inclusive representation in Nigeria bureaucracy: The federal character principle experience. Cogent Social Sciences, 5(1), 1601545.
Iguh, N. (2016). Deportation of Igbos in Nigeria: The constitutional implications. Pinnacle Sociology & Anthropology, 2(3), 1064-1070.
Jinadu, A. L. (2002). Ethnic conflict and federalism in Nigeria. Discussion Papers on Development Policy, No. 49. Bonn: ZEF –Center for Development Research.
Kalu, K., & Falola, T. (Eds.). (2018). Exploitation and misrule in colonial and Postcolonial Africa. Springer.
Lee, S. (2022). The real promise of federalism: A case study of Arendt’s international thought. European Journal of Political Theory, 21(3), 539-560.
Lenshie, N. E., & Yenda, H. B. (2017). Neither citizen nor settler: Contested identity of Northern Cameroons in Nigeria. Ethnic Studies Review, 39-40(1), 117-134.
Levan, A. C. (2015). Dictators and democracy in African development: The political economy of good governance in Nigeria. The African Studies Series. Cambridge University Press.
Maiangwa, B. (2020). The crisis of belonging and ethnographies of peacebuilding in Kaduna State, Nigeria. Lexington Books.
Majekodunmi, A. (2015). Federalism in Nigeria: The past, current peril and future hopes. Journal of Policy and Development, 9(2), 107-120.
Mang, H. G., & Ehrhardt, D. (2018). The politics of paper: negotiating over and around indigeneship certification in Plateau State, Nigeria. Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue canadienne des études africaines, 52(3), 331-347.
Mbah, P. O., Nwangwu, C., & Ugwu, S. C. (2019). Contentious elections, political exclusion, and challenges of national integration in Nigeria. Cogent Social Sciences, 5(1), 1565615.
Mekoa, I. (2019). How Africa got into a mess: Colonial legacy, underdevelopment, corruption and human rights violations in Africa. Journal of Reviews on Global economics, 8, 43-52.
Navy, S.L. (2020). Theory of Human Motivation—Abraham Maslow. In: Akpan, B., Kennedy, T.J. (eds) Science Education in Theory and Practice. Springer Texts in Education. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43620-9_2
Nnabuihe, O. E. (2019). Horizontal inequalities and ethno-religious conflicts in Jos metropolis, North-Central Nigeria. Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue canadienne des études africaines, 53(2), 273-294.
Nnabuihe, O. E. (2020). Autochthony and space in communal war: Citizenship, conflicts, and infrastructure provision in Jos, Central Nigeria. African Affairs, 119(474), 141-163.
Nwanegbo, J., Odigbo, J., & Ochanja, N. C. (2014). Citizenship, indigeneship and settler crisis in Nigeria: Understanding the dynamics of Wukari crisis. Journal of Research in Peace, Gender and Development, 4(1), 8-14.
Odisu, T. A. (2015). Federalism in Nigeria: A critique. Political Sciences and Public Affairs. 3(3). Doi: 10.4172/2332-0761.1000185.
Odubajo, A. (2011). An exploration of contending issues in Nigeria’s federal practice. Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social Sciences, 3(1), 1-33.
Ogunyemi, A. O. (2020). Between nation-building and contestation for power: The place of party politics in Nigeria, 1923-2019. Polish Political Science Yearbook, 49(4), 51-71.
Ojukwu, C. C., & Onifade, C. A. (2010). Social capital, indigeneity and identity politics: The Jos crisis in perspective. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations, 4(5), 173-180.
Okudolo, I. P. T., & Onah, E. I. (2019). Efficient local governments and the stability of federalism in Nigeria. African Renaissance, 16(3), 11-25.
Omotola, J. S. (2021). The troubled trinity: Elections, democracy and development in Nigeria. An Inaugural Lecture, Federal University, Oye Ekiti, Nigeria.
Onyekachukwu, E. P., & Oghogho, O. (2018). Cultural and ethnic pluralism: Implications for national integration in Nigeria. HOFA: African Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 3(1), 74-88.
Oyeneye, I. O., & Adenuga, G. A. (2014). The prospects for peace and security in multi-ethnic and religious societies: A case study of the old Oyo Empire, Nigeria. A paper presented at the1st annual international conference of the International Center for Ethno-Religious Mediation (ICERM). New York. Oct. 1st
Oyeneye, I. O., & Adenuga, G. A. (2015). The role of diplomacy, development and defense in ensuring peace and security in multi-ethnic and religious states: A case study of Nigeria. A paper presented at the 2nd annual international conference of the International Center for Ethno-Religious Mediation (ICERM). New York. Oct. 10th.
Paine, J. (2019). Redistributive political transitions: Minority rule and liberation wars in colonial Africa. The Journal of Politics, 81(2), 505-523.
Ruane, J. & Todd, J. (2016). Ethnicity and religion. In K. Cordell and S. Wolff (Eds.). The Routledge handbook on ethnic conflict, 2nd Ed., pp. 67-77. New York: Routledge.
Sayne, A. (2012). Rethinking Nigeria’s indigene-settler conflicts. United States Institute of Peace’s Special Report 311.
Smooha, S. (2018). How do western democracies cope with the challenge of societal diversity? Nations and Nationalism, 24(2), 215-236.
Taras, R. C. & Ganguly, R. (2015). Understanding ethnic conflict, 4th Edition. New York: Routledge.
The 1999 constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
The International Crisis Group (2012). Curbing violence in Nigeria (1): The Jos crisis. Crisis Group African Report, No 196.
The United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (2013). African government report III: Elections and the management of diversity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ukiwo, U. (2005). The study of ethnicity in Nigeria. Oxford Development Studies, 33(1), 7-23.
Wicker, H. R. (2020). Introduction: Theorizing ethnicity and nationalism. In H. R. Wicker (Ed.). Rethinking Nationalism and Ethnicity: The struggle for meaning and order in Europe (pp. 1-42). Routledge.