Purpose: This study aims to explore the contributions of the Khorezm Jadids to the advancement of national independence, education, culture, and socio-political development in Uzbekistan, highlighting their pioneering role in modernizing schools, literature, and public consciousness during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Research methodology: The research adopts a multidisciplinary approach, integrating historical-analytical, philosophical-comparative, and source-based methods. It utilizes archival records, memoirs, scholarly literature, and press materials to reconstruct the origins, activities, and influence of the Jadid movement within the cultural and political context of Turkestan. Results: The findings reveal that the Khorezm Jadids were instrumental in promoting democratic reforms, national identity, and the spread of modern education and journalism. Despite facing resistance from conservative forces and colonial oppression, their ideas influenced successive enlightenment movements and shaped Uzbekistan’s modern intellectual and political landscape. Conclusion: The study underscores the pivotal role of the Jadids in establishing foundational institutions of modern Uzbekistan—such as the first modern schools, newspapers, novels, and democratic ideals—emphasizing the need for continuous scholarly engagement with their legacy. Limitations: This research is limited to textual and historical sources without extensive use of oral histories or ethnographic methods, potentially omitting local perspectives and interpretations. Contribution: This article provides a deeper understanding of Jadidism’s intellectual, cultural, and political relevance, offering new insights into its impact on Uzbekistan’s national awakening and its enduring significance in contemporary educational and ideological discourse.

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to determine the forms of Hajj diplomacy carried out by the Indonesian government to overcome the long waiting period for Hajj pilgrims. Research methodology: This study used a qualitative research method that utilizes secondary data as the data source. The secondary data mostly refer to various publications, such as books, journals, news, archives, social media, the official website of the Indonesian Ministry of Religious Affairs, and other sources that are factual and relevant to the topic. Results: The Indonesian government uses two tracks of diplomacy in Hajj affairs. The first track of diplomacy is bilateral relations with the Saudi Arabian government, either through meetings between the heads of the state or meetings with other relevant stakeholders. Meanwhile, the second track diplomacy is through the relationship between Indonesian non-governmental actors such as Indonesian Hajj and Umrah travel entrepreneurs with the Saudi Arabian authorities to obtain non-governmental Hajj quotas or commonly referred to as Hajj Furoda from the Saudi Arabian government. Conclusion: These two forms of diplomacy reflect Indonesia’s adaptive strategy in managing Hajj demand amid quota limitations, balancing state and non-state cooperation. Limitations: This study focused only on the years 2015–2023. It also relies on secondary data that may not provide a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics and processes underlying Indonesia's Hajj diplomacy. Furthermore, this study only explores one non-state actor involved in Hajj diplomacy, namely, Hajj and Umrah travel entrepreneurs. Contributions: This study provides valuable insights and recommendations to policymakers, researchers, and stakeholders regarding the dynamics of Indonesia's Hajj diplomacy and its impact on international relations.

Purpose: Territorial disputes remain a crucial issue within the doctrine of national sovereignty, despite international law promoting borderless cooperation. In reality, such conflicts, like the one between Palestine and Israel, continue and result in significant casualties and humanitarian crises. This study aims to analyze humanitarian crimes in the Palestine-Israel conflict zone and assess the jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court (ICC) in addressing them. Methodology: The research uses a normative legal approach based on international regulations and case studies. It relies on secondary legal sources through library research and qualitative descriptive analysis. Results: The findings indicate severe human rights violations, particularly against civilians, including women and children, and damage to non-military facilities. These acts reflect violations of humanitarian law and fall under the ICC’s jurisdiction, which includes genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and aggression. Conclusion: The ICC, although limited in its reach over non-party states, remains a crucial body for pursuing justice and accountability in international humanitarian crises when national systems fail to act. Limitations: The study is confined to the humanitarian aspects of the Israel-Palestine conflict without addressing territorial status or sovereignty issues. It also affirms the ICC’s jurisdiction and the UN Security Council’s obligation to act under the principle of Obligation Erga Omnes. Contribution: This research reinforces the role and limitations of the ICC in addressing gross human rights violations and underscores the need to strengthen global legal frameworks to ensure accountability beyond state sovereignty.